White Privilege by Peggy Macintos an Example of the Topic Literature Essays by

White Privilege by Peggy Macintos The paper composed by Peggy Macintosh looked at and interrelate the idea of prejudice to the issue of uniformity betwheen man and lady. In her paper, Macintosh referenced that men appear to be trying to claim ignorance about the benefits that they appreciated that womens dont. They will in general can't help contradicting the thought that they are over advantaged (in numerous viewpoints) than ladies, despite the fact that they know about the weakness that ladies confronted. Mac referenced that this sort of attitude is likewise material with the issue of bigotry between the whites and individuals with shading. More benefit is being conceded to whites and they appear not to know about these benefits. In spite of the fact that the state had just given a few enactments relinquishing the imbalances among races, still the reality remains that prejudice couldn't be totally disposed of. These benefits, which the whites appear not to recognize, are being considered the standards present in th e general public. A portion of these supposed unacknowledged benefits were expressed on Macintosh exposition. Regardless of whether on the work place, learning territory or amusement puts, the whites encountered these benefits while their partners are consistently in an awkward circumstance as a result of the dread of being cross examined, humiliated or hassled. Need article test on White Privilege by Peggy Macintos point? We will compose a custom article test explicitly for you Continue Our Customers Frequently Tell EssayLab journalists: Who needs to compose paper for me? Proficient scholars suggest: There Is Nothing Impossible For Essaylab Paper Writer Purchase Papers Online Writers For Hire Best Essay Writing Service Good Essay Writing Company The issue on prejudice and uniformity among races is as yet a popular issue that should be tended to. The negligible nearness of enactments against bigotry isn't a response to take care of this issue. The purposes of Macintosh in her work are genuine with respect to the legend of meritocracy between the whites and non whites. It is additionally evident that a portion of the activities done by the whites mirror a type of supremacist demeanor that ordinarily influences their partners. White Americans overwhelms the vast majority of the top situation in an occupation and are overrepresented in magazines and in TV programs. Genuinely, this situation for the white people is of no criticalness at all since they are, in no uncertainty, one of them. This overrepresentation and careless demonstration of whites in numerous fields is the primary issue that Macintosh is managing. Unwittingly, the white people neglect to perceive that they have been over engaging their own race. Being oblivious to this race over strengthening, white people appears to constantly do certain activities of a supremacist. The purpose behind this ignorance is achieved by the general public. Schools have something to do with the feeling of predominance and ignorance of white people and consequently, they likewise have a major influence in illuminating white Americans to avoid such strength and ignorance. Peggy Macintosh White Privilege for sure introduced a reasonable and worthy thought with respect to uniformities between races. It is acceptable to realize that a portion of the white Americans like the creator introduced the issue without a dash of one-sided to their own race America has the fantasy of meritocracy, yet this fantasy is by all accounts not intelligent on the societys activities. Much the same as issue of predominance among man and lady, the issues of bigotry or partiality in light of shading persistently chase America. Indeed, even until today, the whites select to mistreat the minority. I do trust that progressively white people would peruse and basically examined the thoughts introduced by Macintosh since her article would let them understand that in reality, the general public is as yet being one-sided with respect to races. Residents must keep their eyes and psyche open to see these basic activities of prejudice. It isn't sufficient that they know the meaning of p rejudice and they know the previous history of such idea. What is progressively required is their transition to end this issue. Changing the framework or strategy isn't the negligible response to defeat bigotry, people in the general public should likewise take activities with respect to this issue. Usage of enactment without the shared help from the individuals would not prompt achievement. Work Cited Mac, Peggy. White Privilege: Unpacking the Invisible Knapsack.

Irish American Segregation

In the 1960’s and 1970’s there was various sorts of isolation all through the world, especially in the United States. The more individuals moved here the more terrible the isolation became. One specific gathering that I was keen on finding out about was my precursors the Irish-Americans. They confronted a ton of isolation only for the way that they were Irish and they were not conceived in the United States. In any case, it was not simply the way that they were not brought into the world here in light of the fact that even the Irish-Americans who were brought into the world here were oppressed in view of where their folks or grandparents originated from. The Irish after the social equality development with Dr. Martin Luther King held a similar kind of development to have the option to pick up their privileges. In any case, it was totally finished with a slaughter in Northern Ireland that murdered 14 regular people who were taking part in a quiet walk to pick up their common opportunities. A considerable lot of the Irish who had moved to American for opportunity were held at indistinguishable guidelines from they were in their own nation and that was as low class residents. They were victimized as terrible as the African Americans despite the fact that there were laws that should shield them from this sort of treatment. Numerous Irish-Americans who were being dealt with unreasonably held fights and craving strikes however not until things got to the limits was the issue settled and still, at the end of the day it was just a transitory arrangement. Commonly the isolation was utilized in lodging, employments and an enormous bit in training. The youngsters in schools were dealt with distinctively in light of the fact that they were not from America. The beginning of the movement of The Irish to the American was for another possibility and afterward years after the fact it was because of the disappointment of the potato crop in Ireland. A significant number of the Irishâ€Americans lived in crushing measures of neediness and attempted to discover any work they could however with numerous individuals not believing the Irish-Americans they would not enlist them. The Irish were an ethnic gathering as well as they were a Religious Minority Group at any rate until the finish of the common war. After the common war in view of their extraordinary numbers in the north they had the option to change the tides and were not, at this point a minority. They assumed responsibility for government in addition to other things. They went from being one of the most oppressed free Americans to having an Irish-American being occupant. â€Å"Thomas Beer recognizes reasons why many were partial against the Irish. The American Protective Association expected that the Irish were making America a Papal state: clerics were permitted to ride prepares free in California and Irish council members had endeavored to subsidize parochial schools with assets from the city treasury. † This is only a little model in manners that the Irish-Americans were dealt with distinctively in America. When they began winning their privileges back they manhandled that capacity to get the things that they needed. All the Irish-Americans in the public arena were then separated and isolated from society by and by. Since numerous Irish-Americans were mishandling their privileges and setting patterns that made a generalization for the other Irish-Americans, every single Irish-American were dealt with that way. They were then back to being revealed to â€Å"No Irish Need Apply† when they went searching for work and the main spot that didn't have that sign posted was the United States Army enrolling workplaces. They couldn't have cared less on the off chance that you were from here similarly as long as you were a resident you could look for some kind of employment in the military.

New Student Photo Series #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog

New Student Photo Series #6 COLUMBIA UNIVERSITY - SIPA Admissions Blog Max Arvid Anderson will be joining SIPA in two weeks.   He will be among 200+ new students pursuing the Master of International Affairs degree this fall.   Before beginning his studies, Max spent his summer in the Economic and Social Council Chamber at the UN Headquarters in New York. The silly grin on my face is due to some over-the-top self satisfaction, the fatigue is due to spending the summer working. The picture was taken last month, when the draft resolution on General Assembly Revitalization was adopted by consensus in the Ad Hoc Working Group on GA Revitalization. The GA Revitalization process is a yearly affair (like so many things at the UN), and was formalised after the 2005 World Summit. This year I had the privilege to function as negotiator on behalf of the European Union and its Member States. The other main stake holders are the NAM, certain members of the Security Council and UN Member States who value the GA and the UN reform process. This year proved particularly difficult due to well known political sensitivities when it comes to the selection and appointment of the next UNSG, due to take place in 2016. On a more consensual note, we managed to agree that the Security Council elections for non-permanent members should take place earlier than Oc tober; to allow smaller UN Member States to adequately prepare for the two years they spend there.

Causes Of The Cold War - 1388 Words

LESSON 26 - The Cold War Objectives: Identify the causes for the start of the Cold War Identify key actions taken by the US and the Soviet Union to prepare for war Identify how the Cold War impacted American lifestyle Identify actions taken worldwide between the Cold War combatants The Cold War Begins The Cold War was the state of hostility, without direct military confrontation, between the United States and the Soviet Union. The formation of the United Nations (UN) in 1945, which was intended to keep peace, failed to stop the conflicts between these two superpowers. One reason for the start of the Cold War was the conflicting political and economic systems of the United States and Soviet Union. In the U.S. system†¦show more content†¦Under the Truman Doctrine, the United States would send military and economic aid to any country trying to prevent a Communist takeover. To rebuild Europe after the war and encourage capitalism, the Marshall Plan was created to provide billions of dollars to those nations that cooperated with U.S. economic goals. The United States formed a defensive military alliance with its European allies called the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO). The members of NATO pledged that an attack on one country was an attack on all. The Cold War in Asia After defeating the Japanese in World War II, the Chinese Nationalist Army lead by Chiang Kai-shek fought Mao Zedong s Communist forces. Despite American aid, Mao won this civil war in 1948 and made China a Communist country. Chiang and his followers fled to Taiwan, an island off China s southeast coast. At the end of World War II, Korea was divided along the 38th parallel into two separate countries, which were the Communist North and the capitalist South. When the North Korean army invaded South Korea in 1950 to unify the country, the United States called on the members of the United Nations to help. Under the command of U.S. General Douglas MacArthur, troops from 21 UN countries, about 90 percent of them American, fought with the South Korean army. MacArthur pushed the North Koreans toward the Chinese border but then Communist Chinese troops attacked,Show MoreRelatedCauses Of The Cold War1396 Words   |  6 PagesThe Cold War was a political, ideological and sometimes indirect military confrontation that took place after the Second World War between the two largest powers in the world: The United States and the Soviet Union. The conflict between these two great powers intensified without a real war on the ground. It was a silent war characterized by both powers in an arms race with the most lethal weapons without actually using these weapons. That is why that war was known as the Cold War. In this paper,Read MoreCauses Of The Cold War1108 Words   |  5 PagesThe Cold War between the United States and the Soviet Union spanned almost half of a century. It led to worldwide fears and anxiety over the possibility of nuclear war and the desolation of mankind. It led to various proxy wars, costing the lives of millions in foreign nations and thousands of American and Soviet soldiers. With so much fear, death, money, and willpower going into the conflict, there must be an easy answer as to what force caused and drove the conflict. However, this topic is notRead MoreCauses Of The Cold War1716 Words   |  7 PagesThe Cold War, a conflict between the United States and Soviet Union, the two global superpowers at the time. Given the name â€Å"Cold War† only for the fact that neither the Soviet Union nor the United States fought directly with one another, instead the war was waged through allies in the form of proxy wars and through increased use of intensive espionage, a never-ending arms race, immense technological competition and on a political forefront as both sides tried to gain the upper hand. The Cold WarRead MoreCauses Of The Cold War984 Words    |  4 Pages The Cold War has lived in infamy in the minds of many people today. The influence of it can be regarded as one of the most terrifying events that could have transpired, and particularly terrifying to its citizens who lived in constant fear of complete annihilation. From the first events to the fall out of a nuclear war, almost all citizens would have no shelter from the devastation of an atomic war. The roots of the Cold War can be found in several main points starting from the Second World WarRead MoreCauses And Effects Of The Cold War1370 Words   |  6 PagesAbi Amarnath Mrs. Saunders 12 November 2014 English II Causes and Effects of the Cold War Richard Nixon once said of the Cold War that â€Å"the Cold War isn t thawing; it is burning with a deadly heat. Communism isn t sleeping; it is, as always, plotting, scheming, working, fighting.†(www.brainyquote.com). An analysis of the Cold War between 1947-1991 reveals that the Cold War was caused by a difference in political ideals between the USA and the Soviet Union, the aftermath of WWII, and the â€Å"IronRead More Causes Of The Cold War Essay608 Words   |  3 Pages Causes of the Cold War nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp;nbsp; The Cold War occurred during a time of rebuilding for Europe. It characterized international relations and dominated the foreign policies of Europe. It affected all of Europe and determined lasting alliances. The Cold War was caused by the social climate and tension in Europe at the end of World War II and by the increasing power struggles between the Soviet Union. Economic separation between the Soviets and the west also heightened tensionsRead Morethe cause of the cold war Essay794 Words   |  4 Pagescausing the cold war .After the second world war , the ideological difference ,mutual distrust and the disappearance of the common enemy (germany ) , these all are the causes of the cold war .However ,these comflicts were all brought by the US . Many historians believe that the Cold War was inevitable once the common enemy, Germany, was defeated after the end of World War II. Other historians such as John Gaddis stress that neither superpower can be held solely responsible for the ideological war that lastedRead MoreCauses of the Cold War Essay15 70 Words   |  7 Pagesâ€Å"It is clear that fear, greed and revenge were the major factors that caused the Cold War† How far do you agree with this statement when analyzing the causes of the Cold War up to 1949? The responsibility of the origins of the Cold War often triggers questions among historians yet both powers should be blamed for taking part in it. The origins of the Cold War can often be associated with fear, greed and revenge. Through most analyses, the fault was often given to Stalin’s ambitions to expandRead More Causes of the Cold War Essay741 Words   |  3 PagesCauses of the Cold War In this paper I will discuss what actions and thoughts added up to cause the cold war. The cold war lasted from September 1, 1945 to about December 25, 1991. That is about forty-five years, which is an extremely long time. The cold war was a global competition basically between two sides, the Free World, which was led by the United States of America, and the Communist World led by the Soviet Union. The struggle took place through indirect military conflict, and directRead MoreThe Causes of the Cold War Essay2058 Words   |  9 PagesIn discussions of the causes of the Cold War, one controversial issue has been the question: who caused the Cold War? On the one hand, traditional historians argue that the leaders of the Soviet Union are to blame. On the other hand, revisionists contend that the Western leaders are to blame. Others even maintain that it was both the Western and the Soviet leaders who are equally responsible for the development of the Cold War. My own view is that th e Western leaders were responsible for protecting

Critical Analysis of a Published Article Essay - 1272 Words

APPROACHES TO STUDY WITH ENGLISH LANGUAGE SUPPORT (INTENSIVE) Assignment 1: Critical analysis of a published article (1000 words) Saturday 10th October 2009 By Joana Wong This critical analysis is about an article that argues whether drugs should be legalized or not. It was published in The Observer, on Sunday the 6th of September 2009 and it is entitled Latin Americas backlash against US war on drugs by Ed Vulliamy in Tijuana, Rory Carroll in Caracas, Annie Kelly in Buenos Aires and Tom Phillips in Rio de Janeiro. It is a lengthy article, written in a Sunday newspaper for a well-educated and informed audience. It is evident that the reporter has researched the subject well, for example he starts the article with and†¦show more content†¦He states that South America is demanding a partnership instead of the subjugation that hallmarked former US presidencies, saying that not only is their interdiction policy failing, but it is also a pretext for Washington interference. At th e same time he highlights reasons for scepticism such as: some drugs are addictive after one single hit; if possession is legal, it will enhance the domestic market, and above all, drugs kill and destroy lives and legalizing them will make them more accessible to people. I was impressed by this article mainly because of the emotive terminology used throughout by the author such as murderers, serious heroin and crack users, destroyed, incarcerated, brutal, catastrophic, bloodshed, etc., secondly, the factual content is indisputable drawing on a wide range of examples of escalating violence in different countries in Latin America, like the killing of 40 people over three days in Juarez,... take the death toll to about 1,400 this year and thousands of people die every year in Rio de Janeiro in clashes between police and traffickers. He also mentions that the use of paco cocaine paste increased by more than 200% between 2001 and 2005, which proves US policy of prohibition is not working . The article seems to be biased pointing out many reasons for the decriminalisation of drugs in particularShow MoreRelatedCritical Success Factors For Enterprise Resource Planning Implementation Success1740 Words   |  7 PagesIntroduction This paper is a critical review of the article ‘Critical Success Factors for Enterprise Resource Planning Implementation Success’ which was published in the ‘International Journal of Advances in Engineering Technology’. In this review, the article summary is presented first before an analysis of its structure. 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However, at the start it is vital to ensure that the journals, topic information, and authors are all credible. This process is also necessary to make sure that the credibility of this information is professionally supported and held to a scholarly standard. In support o f my research topic, I selected an article that I have deemed a credible source. I willRead MoreBidging The Gap Between Scholarship And Practice1200 Words   |  5 PagesThis analysis of the above journals will follow the same chronological order as the historical perspectives above. Two issues from each journal published within the last three years will be described and analyzed. Public Administration ReviewPAR volume 76 issue 1 was published in January/February 2016, volume 77 issue 2 was published in March/April 2017. 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A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making Free Essays

Holly Forester-Miller, Ph. D. Thomas Davis, Ph. We will write a custom essay sample on A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making or any similar topic only for you Order Now D. Copyright  © 1996, American Counseling Association. A free publication of the American Counseling Association promoting ethical counseling practice in service to the public. — Printed and bound copies may be purchased in quantity for a nominal fee from the Online Resource Catalog or by calling the ACA Distribution Center at 800. 422. 2648. ACA grants reproduction rights to libraries, researchers and teachers who wish to copy all or part of the contents of this document for scholarly purposes provided that no fee for the use or possession of such copies is charged to the ultimate consumer of the copies. Proper citation to ACA must be given. Introduction Counselors are often faced with situations which require sound ethical decision making ability. Determining the appropriate course to take when faced with a difficult ethical dilemma can be a challenge. To assist ACA members in meeting this challenge, the ACA Ethics Committee has developed A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making. The intent of this document is to offer professional counselors a framework for sound ethical decision making. The following will address both guiding principles that are globally valuable in ethical decision making, and a model that professionals can utilize as they address ethical questions in their work. Moral Principles Kitchener (1984) has identified five moral principles that are viewed as the cornerstone of our ethical guidelines. Ethical guidelines can not address all situations that a counselor is forced to confront. Reviewing these ethical principles which are at the foundation of the guidelines often helps to clarify the issues involved in a given situation. The five principles, autonomy, justice, beneficence, nonmaleficence, and fidelity are each absolute truths in and of themselves. By exploring the dilemma in regards to these principles one may come to a better understanding of the conflicting issues. 1. Autonomy is the principle that addresses the concept of independence. The essence of this principle is allowing an individual the freedom of choice and action. It addresses the responsibility of the counselor to encourage clients, when appropriate, to make their own decisions and to act on their own values. There are two important considerations in encouraging clients to be autonomous. First, helping the client to understand how their decisions and their values may or may not be received within the context of the society in which they live, and how they may impinge on the rights of others. The second consideration is related to the client’s ability to make sound and rational decisions. Persons not capable of making competent choices, such as children, and some individuals with mental handicaps, should not be allowed to act on decisions that could harm themselves or others. 2. Nonmaleficence is the concept of not causing harm to others. Often explained as â€Å"above all do no harm†, this principle is considered by some to be the most critical of all the principles, even though theoretically they are all of equal weight (Kitchener, 1984; Rosenbaum, 1982; Stadler, 1986). This principle reflects both the idea of not inflicting intentional harm, and not engaging in actions that risk harming others (Forester-Miller Rubenstein, 1992). 3. Beneficence reflects the counselor’s responsibility to contribute to the welfare of the client. Simply stated it means to do good, to be proactive and also to prevent harm when possible (Forester-Miller Rubenstein, 1992). 4. Justice does not mean treating all individuals the same. Kitchener (1984) points out that the formal meaning of justice is â€Å"treating equals equally and unequals unequally but in proportion to their relevant differences† (p. 49). If an individual is to be treated differently, the counselor needs to be able to offer a rationale that explains the necessity and appropriateness of treating this individual differently. 5. Fidelity involves the notions of loyalty, faithfulness, and honoring commitments. Clients must be able to trust the counselor and have faith in the therapeutic relationship if growth is to occur. Therefore, the counselor must take care not to threaten the therapeutic relationship nor to leave obligations unfulfilled. When exploring an ethical dilemma, you need to examine the situation and see how each of the above principles may relate to that particular case. At times this alone will clarify the issues enough that the means for resolving the dilemma will become obvious to you. In more complicated cases it is helpful to be able to work through the steps of an ethical decision making model, and to assess which of these moral principles may be in conflict. Ethical Decision Making Model We have incorporated the work of Van Hoose and Paradise (1979), Kitchener (1984), Stadler (1986), Haas and Malouf (1989), Forester-Miller and Rubenstein (1992), and Sileo and Kopala (1993) into a practical, sequential, seven step, ethical decision making model. A description and discussion of the steps follows. 1. Identify the Problem. Gather as much information as you can that will illuminate the situation. In doing so, it is important to be as specific and objective as possible. Writing ideas on paper may help you gain clarity. Outline the facts, separating out innuendos, assumptions, hypotheses, or suspicions. There are several questions you can ask yourself: Is it an ethical, legal, professional, or clinical problem? Is it a combination of more than one of these? If a legal question exists, seek legal advice. Other questions that it may be useful to ask yourself are: Is the issue related to me and what I am or am not doing? Is it related to a client and/or the client’s significant others and what they are or are not doing? Is it related to the institution or agency and their policies and procedures? If the problem can be resolved by implementing a policy of an institution or agency, you can look to the agency’s guidelines. It is good to remember that dilemmas you face are often complex, so a useful guideline is to examine the problem from several perspectives and avoid searching for a simplistic solution. 2. Apply the ACA Code of Ethics. After you have clarified the problem, refer to the Code of Ethics (ACA, 2005) to see if the issue is addressed there. If there is an applicable standard or several standards and they are specific and clear, following the course of action indicated should lead to a resolution of the problem. To be able to apply the ethical standards, it is essential that you have read them carefully and that you understand their implications. If the problem is more complex and a resolution does not seem apparent, then you probably have a true ethical dilemma and need to proceed with further steps in the ethical decision making process. 3. Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma. There are several avenues to follow in order to ensure that you have examined the problem in all its various dimensions. Consider the moral principles of autonomy, nonmaleficence, beneficence, justice, and fidelity. Decide which principles apply to the specific situation, and determine which principle takes priority for you in this case. In theory, each principle is of equal value, which means that it is your challenge to determine the priorities when two or more of them are in conflict. o Review the relevant professional literature to ensure that you are using the most current professional thinking in reaching a decision. o Consult with experienced professional colleagues and/or supervisors. As they review with you the information you have gathered, they may see other issues that are relevant or provide a perspective you have not considered. They may also be able to identify aspects of the dilemma that you are not viewing objectively. o Consult your state or national professional associations to see if they can provide help with the dilemma. 4. Generate potential courses of action. Brainstorm as many possible courses of action as possible. Be creative and consider all options. If possible, enlist the assistance of at least one colleague to help you generate options. . Consider the potential consequences of all options and determine a course of action. Considering the information you have gathered and the priorities you have set, evaluate each option and assess the potential consequences for all the parties involved. Ponder the implications of each course of action for the client, for others who will be effected, and for yourself as a counselor. Eliminate the options that clearly do not give the desired results or cause even more problematic consequences. Review the remaining options to determine which option or ombination of options best fits the situation and addresses the priorities you have identified. 6. Evaluate the selected course of action. Review the selected course of action to see if it presents any new ethical considerations. Stadler (1986) suggests applying three simple tests to the selected course of action to ensure that it is appropriate. In applying the test of justice, assess your own sense of fairness by determining whether you would treat others the same in this situation. For the test of publicity, ask yourself whether you would want your behavior reported in the press. The test of universality asks you to assess whether you could recommend the same course of action to another counselor in the same situation. If the course of action you have selected seems to present new ethical issues, then you’ll need to go back to the beginning and reevaluate each step of the process. Perhaps you have chosen the wrong option or you might have identified the problem incorrectly. If you can answer in the affirmative to each of the questions suggested by Stadler (thus passing the tests of justice, publicity, and universality) and you are satisfied that ou have selected an appropriate course of action, then you are ready to move on to implementation. 7. Implement the course of action. Taking the appropriate action in an ethical dilemma is often difficult. The final step involves strengthening your ego to allow you to carry out your plan. After implementing your course of action, it is good practice to follow up on the situation to assess whether your actions h ad the anticipated effect and consequences. The Ethical Decision Making Model at a Glance 1. 2. 3. 4. 5. 6. 7. Identify the problem. Apply the ACA Code of Ethics. Determine the nature and dimensions of the dilemma. Generate potential courses of action. Consider the potential consequences of all options, choose a course of action. Evaluate the selected course of action. Implement the course of action. It is important to realize that different professionals may implement different courses of action in the same situation. There is rarely one right answer to a complex ethical dilemma. However, if you follow a systematic model, you can be assured that you will be able to give a professional explanation for the course of action you chose. Van Hoose and Paradise (1979) suggest that a counselor â€Å"is probably acting in an ethically responsible way concerning a client if (1) he or she has maintained personal and professional honesty, coupled with (2) the best interests of the client, (3) without malice or personal gain, and (4) can justify his or her actions as the best judgment of what should be done based upon the current state of the profession† (p. 58). Following this model will help to ensure that all four of these conditions have been met. How to cite A Practitioner’s Guide to Ethical Decision Making, Papers

A Psychological Study of the Strange Situation

Questions: 1. What is homeostasis? 2. How is body temperature maintained including why this is necessary for the organism? Water is important for homeostasis how are water levels maintained within the body and why it is important to do so? Insulin and Glucagon are homeostatic hormones how is this case and why are they necessary? 3. For each of the subdivision you have labelled above explain their functions within the nervous system and in the case of certain answers their relationships to each other Nervous system, central nervous system, peripheral nervous system. 4. Explain the relationship between structure and functions of the excretory system and what organs are involved in the excretory system and what structures do they carry out this role use annotated diagrams as part of your answer? Answers: 1. Homeostasis is a process of maintaining optimum conditions of all the biochemical and metabolic interactions in the body of any organism to sustain their lives in constantly changing environment. The body temperature and balance of acidity and alkalinity that is pH is also maintained by the process of homeostasis (He et al. 2012). When body encounters an imbalance in the normal range of any one of the important metabolites; it immediately activates its endocrine, nervous, renal and other associated systems to restore the normal body conditions. Homeostasis is a characteristic feature of all organisms from unicellular to multicellular organisms. The process enables different organs and systems of our body to work cooperatively in order to achieve the desired result (Hooper Macpherson, 2015). 2. Temperature regulation in the body is done by homeostasis. There are two different kinds of animal endotherms- those who generally maintain a constant body temperature and ectotherms- those whose body temperatures changes with eternal factors. In case of humans the body temperature is regulated by the hypothalamus. Hypothalamus is the thermoregulatory center of the human body which acts as a sensor and detects small variations in the body temperature (Forster, Hirst Atkinson, 2012). There are two different lines of thermo receptors beneath the skin which senses the change in the temperature and tranduces the signal to the hypothalamus. If it is too hot then the heat loss centre of the hypothalamus is activated but when it is too old then heat generating centre gets activated. The hypothalamus then sends response to the effectors of the autonomic nervous system. Temperature homeostasis is very important for animals to live in this constantly changing environment. Human body comprises of so many organ systems for performing specific works. The biochemical pathways performed by these systems involve active participation of a wide array of enzymes. Enzymes need an optimum temperature for their activity. The ambient temperature or the normal body temperature of humans generally serves as the optimum temperature for the enzymes to carry their normal funtion. So if temperature of the body changes then these enzymes will not function properly thereby hindering the cascade of the biochemical pathway. In addition to that enzymes are denatured at high temperature that is their native structure gets destroyed and the enzyme no longer remains functional. The biochemical pathways are catalyzed by enzymes but if their native structure is lost then the metabolic pathways will be blocked (Culling, 2013). The ultimate result of this will be dysfunctioning of the organs and the systems. So temperature homeostasis is necessary to keep all the physiological and metabolic pathways of our body in their normal condition. Water is the important component of all cells because 55% of the cell comprises of water. Water activity is an essential feature of every cell. This term determines the percentage of water content in a cell. Water is the main component of blood too as it maintains blood volume. Water potential of blood needs to be regulated in order to prevent water loss from the cells. This regulation is also done by the hypothalamus which contains osmoreceptors. The osmoreceptors detect small change in water potential. A drop in the blood volume causes a sudden fall of blood pressure. The hypothalamus signals the brain to impart a feeling of thirst indicating requirement of water in the body. Hypothalamus also releases Antidiuretic hormone which opens the water channels of the endothelial cells of the collecting tubule of the nephrons (Ainsworth et al 2014). A hormone called rennin, released by the kidney activates another hormone Angiotensin II which constricts the blood vessels and in turn increa ses blood pressure. Water also receives the toxins from the cells and excretes them out of the body. Gaseous substances like oxygen and carbon-di-oxide are also carried by water. These two gases are carried by the blood and blood is mostly composed of water. Oxygen get dissolved in the watery portion that is the plasma of the blood and carried to the cells to meet the requirement of oxygen. On the other hand carbon-di-oxide, released due to excretion of the cells, get dissolved in the plasma of blood and forms carboic acid, a mild acid, and finally comes to the lungs (Hannon et al. 2012). There in the lungs the CO2 diffuses out of the blood and finally from the lungs. Body temperature is also regulated to some extent by water. Water provides an efficient mean of regulating the body temperature. During sweating, water is released from the sweat glands and evaporates from the skin; this in turn decreases the body temperature because when water evaporates it takes the heat from the bod y so the temperature lowers. Glucose is the principal carbohydrate which is transported in the cells. Glucose level needs to be controlled in all the cells. Generally glucose concentration should remain within 0.8 to 1 g/dm3 of blood. When glucose level in the blood rises up then the situation is called hyperglycaemia and when it falls then it is known as hypoglycaemia. Both the cases are fatal and even can lead to death. Glucose homeostasis is done by two hormones called insulin and glucagon. Both the hormones are released from the endocrine glands pancreas. Pancreas contains a region of hormone secreting cells called Islets of Langerhans. The hormones insulin and glucagon are secreted by the and cells of the Islets of Langerhans. Pancreas has receptors which sense the concentration of glucose in the blood. Insulin and glucagon have antagonistc effect on the blood glucose level (Trung et al. 2012). Insulin stimulates cells to uptake glucose for using in the cellular respiration process. Insulin turns on a sig nal transduction pathway that converts glucose into glycogen by the process called glycogenesis. This process causes polymerization of glucose into glycogen and thus concentration of free glucose in the blood decreases. On the other hand, glucagon cleaves glycogen polymer and produces glucose monomer by a process called glycogenolysis. After taking a full meal free glucose level in the blood increases. This high blood glucose stimulates the pancreas to release insulin from the cells. The insulin triggers the glycogenesis process to switch on and polymerize free glucose into glycogen. But when blood glucose level is very low then the endocrine system triggers the glycogenolysis process to turn on and break down glycogen into glucose rendering an increase in the free glucose level in blood. Both insulin and glucagon are essential for the cells otherwise blood glucose level will be disturbed. If insulin is not released during rise in blood glucose then free glucose will not be utilized by the cells. As a result hyperglycaemia will be caused. This situation is commomnly known as diabetes mellitus. High concentration of glucose often spills out in the urine causing a serious health problem. So diabetic patients commonly need insulin therapy in which insulin is given to the patient intravenously from outside. If glucagon is not secreted properly then a condition called hypoglycaemia occurs in which the blood glucose level suddenly falls. Hypoglycaemia can lead to coma and even death. So these two hormones need to be secreted properly otherwise diabetes or hypoglycaemia may lead to serious health concern (Cantley Ashcroft, 2015). 3. Nervous system, central nervous system, peripheral nervous system Nervous system is the signaling centre of the body. It controls and coordinates different physiological, morphological and metabolic functions in the body. The main function of the nervous system is to respond to any internal or external stimulus of the constantly changing environment. Nervous system coordinates muscular activity as well as the internal relationship of the internal organs (Mathias Bannister, 2013). Function of the central nervous system: The three parts of the central nervous system performs three different functions. The forebrain helps in thinking, analyzing, learning, coordinating the activities of the motor nerves. The mid brain controls motor function, helps in visual and auditory functions. The hind brain transmits sensory information. It also helps to maintain body balance, movement, digestion, respiration and maintain heart rate. The spinal cord delivers information to and from the brain. The spinal cord is the main component of the reflex arc so it controls and coordinates reflex actions (Cantley Ashcroft, 2015). Function of the peripheral nervous system: Peripheral nervous system is involved in the voluntary actions by the skeletal musles. It contains three types of nerves-spinal, cranial and association nerves. Spinal nerves transmit signals to the spinal cord. Cranial nerves helps in smell, vision, taste etc. Association nerves help in coordinating motor and sensory functions. 4. The system which helps to remove waste products from the body is called the excretory system. The principal organs of the excretory system are two kidneys. Kidneys are bean shaped and composed of its structural and functional units the nephrons. The kidneys are located on the either side of the backbone. There are two regions in the kidneys- the outer cortex and inner medulla (Ransohoff Brown, 2012). Waste products from the cells enter into the kidneys through blood. Renal artery carries blood to the kidneys and renal vein carries blood from the kidneys. The blood containing waste products get purified in two kidneys. Figure: Excretory System (Source: My organ donation project, 2015) The waste formed in the kidneys then pass through ureters and stores in the form of urine in the urinary bladder. Urine is formed in the nephrons by reabsorption of water which is aided by a hormone called Anti-di-uretic hormone or ADH. Urine contains salts, organic compounds and most importantly uric acid and urea. Uric acid is formed due to nucleic acid decomposition and urea is the product of amino acid metabolism (Tortora Grabowski, 2003). Nephron is the structural and functional unit of kidney. It contains a capsule like structure called Bowmans capsule below which there is a tubular part called the proximal convoluted tubules. The proximal convoluted tubule is followed by a U shaped tube known as Henles loop and then another tubule called the distal convoluted tubule. The distant convoluted tubule ultimately opens in a wide tube known as collecting tubule. The collecting tubule receives the urine. Bowmans capsule contains a complex network of blood capillaries called the glomerulus. Blood enters the glomerulus by renal artery and gets purified over there. Due to the high pressure the plasma is separated from the blood producing glomerulus filtrate. Carbohydrate, protein and fat metabolism produces different toxic waste products in the body which should be washed off from the body. Excretory system of our body performs this task. Metabolism releases nitrogenous and non-nitrogenous wastes in the cells. 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