Differences in liberal and realist approaches

Differences in liberal and realist approaches Every group interaction between humans in different activities entails defining the participants in discrete groups of two. The purpose of which is to differentiate between one group of participants that excel from the other group that does not. The exact labeling of these groups varies with the activity under consideration. Morally speaking, a person can be grouped into either good or evil class; Talking about football, a player can be grouped into either superior or inferior category; economics also entails dividing the people who study them as either classical or Keynesians. Though the initial two groups occupy the end points of a horizontal scale, there are many entities that interconnect these two, thereby filling the grey area. They never full advocate the logic of any one of the two rather argue for an amalgamation, offering a middle path to any eventual solution. The history of Political science as an academic field of study also has been imbued with an eternal clash of ideas between two schools of thought. Throughout generations these two schools have vied for the coveted position in explaining the nature of humans as political entities. One sees humans as increasingly self centered and find little in them to work collectively for the benefit of all humankind; the other believes in the selflessness of the same humanity and sees hope and reason to continue working for a world where everything would be characterized by principles of freedom. The former is called the Realist school of thought while the latter stance is that of the Liberals. The clash is particularly evident in the area of International Relations within Political Science. Here realists think of the international state system as increasingly anarchic, believe that all states work in their self interest and characterize international politics as power centered concentrating on balance of power, and finally that war is inevitable in the international state system. On the other hand, liberals argue that that there is great room for cooperation and benefit for all in the international state system, believe that states can and do work for mutual benefit and find evidence against the realist claim that all international politics is power politics. They also argue that war is avoidable and complex interdependence has also a role to play in the international arena. If the above demarcation separates the liberals and realists within IR, the academia within another relatively new sub discipline of Political Science, IPE, had also followed that pattern in their study of a relationship of international politics and economics. Realism in IPE has been more often called as mercantilism. In both case they represent the same school in a sense that both of them act as synonyms for a particular school of thought. Mercantilism has come to find more usage as a term within IPE as opposed to realism in IR. As the aspect of international politics economy under discussion is international tra de, I will use realism as mercantilism throughout the course of this paper to remain synonymous with the terminology used within IPE. The paper would give a brief introduction of the two discourses within IPE and then scrutinize them further side by side till the end of the paper. The conclusion aims to provide a brief understanding as to where were headed in this discussion now and in the future. Liberalism traces its roots to about two hundred years ago to economic philosophers Adam Smith and David Ricardo. Liberalism has abounded in popularity in the aftermath of the WWI and WWII. Although limitations have come around in the inability of liberalism to bear the fruit which it so vigorously argued for, liberals are found everywhere today in the business community of the West, Wall Street, IMF and World Bank etc. Liberals praise the benefits of free market and trade. Liberals most important contribution is the idea that all participants in a system of free markets and trade are beneficiaries (Cohen, p 12, 2008). The view does not stop at the junction of free market. They fail to give due importance to the role of Politics in free markets and trade. State for most liberals is a negative and holistic entity which should be kept out of the affairs of the free market as it impairs the Laissez-faire idea of market regulation. Mercantilism rightly claims to have the longest intellectual tradition because this emphasizes the importance of nations and power in thinking about economic issues. Mercantilists contrast most sharply with liberals in asserting that the gain of one nation usually comes at the expense of others (Cohen, p. 12, 2008). As a result mercantilists see international economy increasingly characterized by a close relationship between economic, technological and military strength; all topped by a greater national influence. Mercantilist arguments are increasingly used by countries and groups disadvantaged by international trade as a cover for their inability to stimulate domestic development process. They argue for self serving initiatives like protectionism etc. in the areas of economics and military technology. The contribution of mercantilists is to recognize that international economic relations operate within a world of competitive and conflictual nations (Cohen, p. 12, 2008). For mercant ilists, power and economic motives both play an important role in the shaping of international economic cooperation or competition. The two ends of the spectrum are linked together by a multitude of theories and discourses. The links at times appear to be very convincing while at other times add to the already prevalent confusion in this field. This uncertainty is what makes IPE as a discipline so interesting to study. The feeling of intrigue very much abounds within oneself as one studies more and more the web that connects nations in international politics or separates them. International political economy is not an easy subject and the major tool for analyzing IPE, trade, becomes harder to critically analyze with the aim of reaching towards a specific conclusion. Hence one should delve further into IPE with an open mind and let the discourse guide oneself towards any eventual conclusion. The modality of the topic requires me to compare and contrast liberalism and mercantilism. The framework that I intend to use is to analyze both in terms of their key actors, key dynamic and their stand on conflict and cooperation in the international arena of trade. I also intend to put side by side their inception as an academic school of thought and see if any meaningful result can be deducted from it. The origin of the mercantilist school of thought can be traced back to the emergence of nation based politics in Europe during the fifteenth century. Liberals found root in the wake of the industrial revolution of the eighteenth and nineteenth century. In this sense Mercantilism ideas have had a longer life than their liberalist counterparts. Liberal ideas earned much approval and favoritism in the wake of the failure of realism as an effective discourse describing and governing the international politics that led to the bloody World Wards I and II. Liberals see the international trade system as interdependent rather than anarchic and self serving as advocated by realists. Realists see the international trade as a zero sum game, the gain of one country is the loss of another, which liberals see it as a positive sum game that the growth of international trade is of benefit to everyone. Liberals give the idea of the growing of a pie, as the pie gets bigger the slice each participant ge ts also increases. Here one should question that this example fails to give due account to the question that which participant gets the bigger slice. Also that due to the comparative or absolute advantages that some countries hold over the other, those countries grow at a rate higher than the others. Also the countries not possessing the comparative or absolute advantage require huge domestic political costs to be entailed if a shift is made from no advantage sectors to ones having comparative advantage in its domestic economy; these costs include unemployment, temporary inflation, public backlash, loss of political support for the government in power etc. For example during the Vietnam war, President Nixon decided against raising taxes to cut back US trade deficit because it might weaker his already fragile political support. Now this differential growth rates for different countries presents itself as a dilemma for a state especially since the concept of a state is an entity that is supposed to provide the best possible package of security, progress and life style towards its citizens. In the pursuit of this self or collective interest of realists and liberals respectively, the former believe that power has an equal, if not stronger, role to play along with economics in the international economy and trade relations; the latter tend to underplay the role of power in the international politics and emphasize the ability of states to choose between attractive courses of action. Nevertheless, mercantilist arguments have often come to be chosen as routes for underdeveloped nations to catch up with their developed counterparts. Alexander Hamilton writing in the 1970s urged Americans to protect their manufacturers from foreign competition so that they could industrialize and increase their power. Almost a hundred years later, Fredrick List argued that Germany should industrialize behind trade barriers so that it could catch up to the economic might of Great Britain (OBrien Williams, 2004). The protectionist apprehensions or favoritism continue till this day. As recently as on the 17th of November this year, President Hu Jintao of China in a joint news conference with President Obama called for joint opposition to trade protectionism (China and US to work together, 2009). Realists see the state as the key actor in the international arena, while for liberals the starting point of analysis is the individual. Liberals argue for a complete freedom for the needs of the individual by arguing that if left alone the individuals would maximise the gain of the entire humankind regardless of their origin. Liberals see state interference in the market as negative and advocate the freedom of the market to self govern. Realists on the other hand believe that there is nothing natural about markets. They are artificially within the social contract of each state, which requires that a markets functions have to be regulated by a higher authority. Similarly realists doubt the role firms have to play within the domestic markets and as expected for liberals the presence of firms is a positive omen in a sense it increases the overall wealth of any country. Realists prefer state to the individual and for liberals its vice versa. Even within liberal thought, there exist a de marcation separating those who are hardcore liberals and those who acknowledge the role state has to play. It ranges from those who see the state fading away in an emerging borderless world (Ohmae 1990) that will be dominated by private business to liberal institutionalists (Keohane and Nye, 1977) who stress the continuing importance of the state, but see it enmeshed in webs of interdependence and international organization (OBrien Williams, 2004). Moving towards the dynamics of these two discourses, for liberal theorists the market lies at the centre of economic life (OBrien Williams, 2004). Realists feel the rational activity of the state characterizes the dynamics of international trade and cooperation. Here the rational activity by any is undertaken with an aim to get the best possible outcome for its citizens. Liberals admit the shortfall of markets to weave their magic in certain fragile times of international trade but theyre almost certain in their belief that any further state involvement at that fragile instant is certain to worse the already weak market situation. Realists back out of this argument by maintaining that market relations are important but market is governed by the activities of the state. Economic activities and actors are subordinate to political agendas and actors respectively. The consequence of the salience of the state is that international economic relations become international political relatio ns (OBrien Williams, 2004). Realist scholars believe that the nature of global economy reflects the interests of the most powerful states by arguing that free trade regimes tend to exist during the times when a single state dominates the entire world system; as the hegemon can absorb the costs associated with imposing the free trade system. As the system degrades towards a multiple power centre system, conflict characterizes the international relationship between states as interests contradict. Liberals maintain that if all the countries maintain free trade policies and shun self centered motives, conflict would certainly not take place. They give the example of Europe following the WWII and also that liberal democracies never go to war with one another. The phenomenon of globalization has evoked two tiered response within both the realist and the liberal school of thought. Defensive nationalists within realism admit the presence of globalization and work to undermine it rather tha n skeptics who dont see any form of globalization at all. Within liberalism too a similar trend is produced; hyper globalists see globalization as breaking down barriers between countries and unleashing a force of production bound to produce further happiness for humankind (OBrien Williams, 2004). Liberals influenced with Keynesian principles still see the problems of free markets in certain scenarios as cause for possible hesitation towards globalization; it might have some unwanted outcomes. They support the need for market reform till its perfection is achieved. Finally dealing with the aspect of conflict and cooperation, liberals see international trade as essentially cooperative as opposed to the realist view that it is conflictual. Example of theories within both the schools that advocate their respective ideas include the theory of comparative advantage within liberalism that describe that even while possessing a comparative advantage, not absolute, in a certain area of production, one can benefit from trade in the international trade. Realist power based theories moan the absence of any higher authority in the international state system which they see as must to regulating any cooperation and mutual benefit in the international trade. The concern for liberals with nationalist policies is that they lead to conflict. Liberal theorists see trade interaction as strengthening bonds for peace and stability. The liberal belief in the connection between protectionist policies and conflict and the reverse argument, namely that capitalist favours peace and conflict and the reverse argument, namely that capitalist favours peace, is central to the liberal critique of the international economic order. (OBrien Williams, p. 20, 2004) Immanuel Kant foresaw an era of perpetual peace when all the world market systems would be characterized by Free states and international state an alliance of democratic states. Woodrow Wilson advocated adopting liberal principles for the international state system following World War I; also a founding principle for the League of Nations. Similar nationalist policies following the Great Depression were understood to have aggravated relations between countries leading up to the World War II. Citing the pluralist nature of international trade and economic system, liberal theory of complex interdependence explain the connection between increase economic exchange and interconnectedness and the long peace among Western nations after 194 5represent classical liberal political economy (OBrien Williams, p. 21, 2004). The belief of international cooperation and conflict of realists tend to start with their lack of total belief in the abilities of market. Markets for realists produce both positive and negative outcomes. Since, due to their inherent assumption I believe, most realists see markets negative outcomes more than their positive ones realists argue for state control of important economic variables of their domestic economy. A liberal economy sees these very controls as measures of protectionism. Mercantilist arguments are prevalent more in sectors which are either critical to a nations existence or has to do with their cultural values. Examples of either of these could be a countrys defence industry or their local film and music industry etc. With the culmination of the cold war as well as the communist setups of many countries around the globe it appears liberal policies have seem to be dominate, for now. It remains to be seen how long does this majority support goes in red efining the international economic and political structure. Some liberals went as far as to claim that history had ended because the liberal democratic model had triumphed over other forms of social organization (Fukuyama, 1992). Robert Cox said, Theory is always for someone and for some purpose (p. 207, 1986). The presence of different ideas in analyzing one aspect of international economic system finds its roots in a number of reasons. The first of these is that although all the theories are trying to explain one single phenomenon, they are looking at it from different angles. One theory looks at it from the angle of security, for the other its economics that holds the upper hand and for another school of thought, Marxism or critical perspective, its all about class struggle. Another reason is the group of people the theorization is coming from. Rich and influential people would tend to favour liberal trade policies as it offers the least resistance in conducting their business and reaping profits. Under privileged group of people would advocate for protectionist policies that would protect their interests. One last reason is that due to the subjective nature of opinions and reasons, it is not possible to g et an absolute categorization of a theory as right or wrong. Theories are based on observations, not mathematical truths. Thus their rightfulness depends on the value judgment that particular groups of people apply to them. It is important for us to realize is that we do not have to follow any one particular school of thought blindly. The presence of multiple layers of explanation presents one with a tool to apply ones thinking to any specific case. More over one can find any amalgamation describing ones own stance between these layers of theorizations that has taken place until now within International Political Economy. References Cohen, B. (2008). International Political Economy An Intellectual History, 17 39. OBrien, R., Williams, M. (2004). Global Political Economy Evolution and Dynamics, 11 36. (2009, November 17). China and US to work together. BBC News. Retrieved from http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/asia-pacific/8363643.stm

Emily Dickinson Essay

A poem, sonnet, short story, and other kinds of literature all seem useless if no one has ever read it. The true value of words can only be best appreciated when their meaning reaches other people. Emily Dickinson, one of the authors renowned to have produced some the finest literary pieces, has touched the hearts of many people all around the world through her works. Even today, years after she passed away, her works and influence linger for generations to come. There is no better way to understand the present without knowing and tracing the remnants of the past. Emily Dickinson’s classics give people a better grasp of the kind of life that people lived during her time. Analyzing the writing style and the perspective of an author such as Dickinson will give the people a comparison of today and yesterday. Most authors write based on their experience or the surrounding environment, and studying these pieces of literature will provide a person with information about the author, his or her family, and daily living. Emily Dickinson’s father was a lawyer and her mother was a housewife. She was born to a wealthy family in Massachusetts and was blessed with good education. She was proved to be an introvert yet an intelligent student. She started writing shortly after she attended the Mount Holyoke Female Seminary (Famous Poets and Poems, 2009). Most of her works center on the issues of death, immortality, nature, and faith. She dedicated her poem entitled â€Å"Safe in their Alabaster Chambers† to her friend and fellow author Thomas Wentworth who participated in the Civil War (Famous Poets and Poems, 2009). â€Å"Because I Could Not Stop for Death† is also one of her famous and well-talked about poems. It obviously talks about death and the afterlife. Some of the controversial lines are the following: â€Å"Because I could not stop for Death, / He kindly stopped for me. / The carriage held but just ourselves / And immortality† (Dickinson, 2000a, n. p. ). In the poem, the author uses the point of view of someone who has experienced eternity to describe it. She illustrates her life’s journey through childhood, maturity, and old age. Contrary to most views, the author describes death as a gentleman who came to take her towards the afterlife. Death is one of the topics she chose probably because it was during her time when the Civil War erupted, and all her loved ones were dying, like her friend Wentworth. Experiencing the death of a loved one makes a person contemplate about it. Emily Dickinson also gave breath to the famous quote, â€Å"love is life† and â€Å"If I could stop one heart from breaking† (Dickinson, 2000b, n. p. ; Dickinson, 2000c, n. p. ). Love is the shortest most powerful word that ever existed. The author is correct when she said that â€Å"love is life† because its power transcends death (Dickinson, 2000c, n. p. ). During the 19th century, people fought hard for life and love. That is why most works coming from these times talk so passionately and deeply about it. â€Å"If I Could Stop One Heart from Breaking† is another classic that talks about what a person can do to help another being. She expounds further by saying that her life would not be in vain if she could help ease a person’s pain (Dickinson, 2000b). Life is too short to be wasted for selfish reasons, and as such, the life of an individual who takes the time to go an extra mile for others will not be in vain. Emily Dickinson’s works are priceless because they will never go out of style, and her words of wisdom can be applied all throughout the ages. She had a rough life, and she clearly made her point using her words. She is one of the most acknowledged and successful authors of all time not only because of her unique and classical perspective, but also because she succeeded in giving the people of today a peek of what it felt like to have lived and loved in the 19th century. References Dickinson, E. (2000a). Because I could not stop for death. The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. New York: Bartleby. com.Retrieved June 22, 2009, from http://www. bartleby. com/113/4027. html. Dickinson, E. (2000b). If I could stop one heart from breaking. The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. New York: Bartleby. com. Retrieved June 22, 2009, from http://www. bartleby. com/113/1006. html. Dickinson, E. (2000c). That I did always love. The Complete Poems of Emily Dickinson. New York: Bartleby. com. Retrieved June 22, 2009, from http://www. bartleby. com/113/3008. html. Famous Poets and Poems. (2009). Emily Dickinson Biography. Retrieved June 24, 2009, from http://famouspoetsandpoems. com/poets/emily_dickinson/biography.

Tina Turner

Tina Turner (born Anna Mae Bullock; November 26, 1939) is an American singer and actress whose career has spanned more than 50 years. She has won numerous awards and her achievements in the rock music genre have earned her the title The Queen of Rock ‘n' Roll.[1][2][3] Turner started out her music career with husband Ike Turner as a member of the Ike & Tina Turner Revue.[4] Success followed with a string of hits including â€Å"River Deep, Mountain High† and the 1971 hit â€Å"Proud Mary†. With the publication of her autobiography I, Tina (1986), Turner revealed severe instances of spousal abuse against her by Ike Turner prior to their 1976 split and subsequent 1978 divorce. After virtually disappearing from the music scene for several years following her divorce from Ike Turner, she rebuilt her career, launching a string of hits beginning in 1983 with the single â€Å"Let's Stay Together† and the 1984 release of her fifth solo album Private Dancer. Her musical career led to film roles, beginning with a prominent role as The Acid Queen in the 1975 film Tommy, and an appearance in Sgt. Pepper's Lonely Hearts Club Band. She starred opposite Mel Gibson as Aunty Entity in Mad Max Beyond Thunderdome for which she received the NAACP Image Award for Outstanding Actress in a Motion Picture, and her version of the film's theme, â€Å"We Don't Need Another Hero†, was a hit single. She appeared in the 1993 film Last Action Hero. One of the world's most popular entertainers, Turner has been called the most successful female rock artist[5] and was named â€Å"one of the greatest singers of all time† by Rolling Stone.[6] Her albums and singles have sold nearly 180 million copies worldwide.[7][8] She has sold more concert tickets than any other solo music performer in history.[9][10] She is known for her energetic stage presence,[2] powerful vocals, career longevity,[9] and widespread appeal.[11] In 2008, Turner left semi-retirement to embark on her Tina!: 50th Anniversary Tour.[12][13] Turner's tour became one of the highest selling ticketed shows of 2008-2009.[8] Turner was born a Baptist, but converted to Buddhism and credits the spiritual chants with giving her the strength that she needed to get through the rough times.[14]

Standardized Tests Between Pre-school and Senior Year - Free Essay Example

Sample details Pages: 2 Words: 609 Downloads: 8 Date added: 2019/06/24 Category Management Essay Level High school Tags: Standardized Testing Essay Did you like this example? Studies show that the common student takes 112 authorized standardized tests between pre-school and senior year. In todays world, standardized tests are a source to make serious choices about students, including grade advancement or high school graduation, and higher education assessment. Supporters of standardized test say that they are fair, objective, and accurate while critics say that they are unreliable, biased, and flawed. Most people either think it is the most effective way to measure students abilities or it is a headache for everyone involved. Standardized testing has triggered a national debate in recent years. Background By definition, standardized tests are administered and scored in a consistent, or standard, matter. Standardized tests were initially set up as a measurement that everyone could use as a indicator of achievement. In the United States, students begin taking standardized tests in elementary school. They are given identically in every school and classroom all around the world. Most of us are accustomed to the traditional multiple choice format, but they can also cover true-false questions, short-answer questions, essay questions, or a mixture of question types. Many people debate just how effective they are on students education. Don’t waste time! Our writers will create an original "Standardized Tests Between Pre-school and Senior Year" essay for you Create order Standardized tests are beneficial because they provide measurements of the everyday performance of students in their particular grade level. This helps highlight those who may need further assistance and who may need to move up to a more advanced class. It also shows teachers and parents whether or not each child is learning at the correct pace. A strong standardized test score can show colleges that you are ready to take on the challenge of college. The primary purpose of each grade level is to prepare students for the next grade level, and to help them succeed in the real world. It may not prepare them for life necessarily, but it can ensure them a good academic future which leads to a good job. The world outside of school is challenging. Standardized test can help prepare you for your future. As long as you try your best, there is no failure. Walberg says, Students who practice demonstrating their knowledge and skills on standardized tests throughout their school career become better prepared to meet future educational, occupational, and professional goals. While the rigor of these tests may change at the college level, the content on the tests are designed to help prepare students for the difficulty of college. Standardized test taking develops habits that help students not only with the test but throughout life. (Walberg) The workforce today requires more educated and advanced workers, which requires individuals to study intensively to pass necessary tests. Time spent teach test With so much depending on the test results, teachers often feel forced to teach the test. This means that teaching and learning has only became an activity that prepares students to test according to state standards. Many teachers just want their students to pass the test to make themselves look good instead of assuring that students are learning the information. Focus high test scores Teachers are put under pressure for their students to do well on the tests. They have to be anxious all year about testing and how well their students will do instead of being anxious about their students actually learning. Many teachers are evaluated based on test scores in subjects they have never taught. Teachers who teach more advanced classes are obviously going to have higher test scores than those of the standard class. The load to better education in public schools has pushed teachers to boost the use of memorization and drills that force students to move away from thinking methods that help them in reasonable conditions.